Pirates & Privateers: Naval Histories of the United Kingdom

Cover Art: The Two
Battles of Copenhagen 1801 and 1807

The Two Battles of Copenhagen 1801 and 1807
Britain & Denmark in the Napoleonic Wars
by Gareth Glover
Pen & Sword, 2023, ISBN 978-1399077295, UK £18.99 / US $38.95

A signal goes up to break off the engagement, but Horatio Nelson is said to have brought his telescope up to his blind eye and claims not to see his commander’s signal. This may be the only incident that readers are familiar with as regards these two battles. Many accounts of Nelson’s life mention the fight, but they don’t go into great depth and they often omit or gloss over what comes before and after. They also recount the episode from a single perspective rather than including multiple sides of either conflict. Glover attempts to rectify this by showing the interconnecting threads in this period of history and how what transpires during the first battle impacts the second. He also shows the complexity of Anglo-Danish relations, as well as Denmark’s precarious situation as regards its neighbors and Napoleon’s aggressiveness.

During the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark managed to remain neutral despite its strategic location that provided ingress and egress to Baltic ports that supplied products vital to Britain’s shipbuilding industry. In 1799, the Russian tsar proposed that Denmark and other countries form a league of Armed Neutrality, wherein the members would fight to stay impartial. The Danes were set to be the “front line” of defense for this alliance, but they weren’t keen on being in this position. Britain saw the policy as a subtle shift and wished to safeguard their supply source since the Royal Navy was a key component in the fight against Napoleon’s territorial expansion.

To that end, a fleet was assembled, and Vice Admiral Sir Hyde Parker was placed in command of the Royal Navy’s Baltic Fleet. The problem with this proved twofold: Parker was sixty-one at the time and, being recently wed, was more interested in his eighteen-year-old wife than in preparing the fleet for departure. His second-in-command was a rising star, Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, whose seamanship, daring, and bravery were never in question, but some thought him arrogant and his private life involved scandals. Although their working relationship seemed to jibe, Parker’s orders weren’t explicit enough. He was to take or destroy the Danish fleet, but what then? The other difficulty was that Nelson craved action, while Parker had doubts even after decisions were made and commands given.

On the flipside, the Danes’ purpose during this time was to further fortify their defenses and stall long enough for the fleets of Sweden and Russia to arrive. Although the Danish navy was well-equipped, they didn’t truly plan for it to engage in battle. After all, if they lost their ships and men, who would defend their city and country? Even the Crown Prince, Commodore Fischer, and Admiral Wleugel doubted they could win against the British, but they didn’t see they had any alternative.

The outcome of this first battle depends on which side it is viewed from, as Glover shows. Afterward, there is a brief respite in the war until the conflict is renewed in 1803. Although Denmark maintains a strict neutrality once again, the defeat of Russian forces at the Battle of Friedland (1807) leave Denmark as one of only three countries on the Continent that is still trading with the British. Napoleon’s new tactic involves economic warfare, which puts Denmark in a tenuous situation. The British have no intention of losing their trading partner, but the Crown Prince of Denmark refuses to hand over his fleet. Another confrontation between Denmark and Britain is inevitable, and it will involve a joint operation between the Royal Navy and the Royal Army. This time, the principals will be Admiral Gambier, General Arthur Wellesley, and Danish General Peymann.

Divided into twenty-three chapters, the narrative includes black-&-white illustrations throughout with color artwork at the center. An overview is provided as is a brief recounting of what visitors will see if they go to Copenhagen today. Aside from footnotes, a bibliography, and an index, Glover provides nine appendices concerning the 1801 battle and twenty-seven for the 1807 siege of the city.

Glover’s goal in writing this history is to heal any breaches that still exist and to provide a better understanding as to why each side did what they did. He provides a clear understanding of before, during, and after each battle and incorporates eyewitness reports, such as that of a student watching the battle who finds his view obscured from all the gun smoke, or the twelve-year-old who climbs a crane and reports to the crowd below what transpires, or the private who believes he can win the battle by himself. This book is for anyone who wants a clearer, well-rounded picture of what happened and why.

Cover Art: The British
Navy, Economy and Society in the
Seven Years War

The British Navy, Economy and Society in the Seven Years War
by Christian Buchet
translated by Anita Higgie and Michael Duffy
Boydell, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84383-801-2, US $115.00 / UK £65.00

This book focuses on how the British Admiralty feeds the seamen and officers who man their warships. The Victualling Board’s effective administration and stimulation of commerce based within the country and across the sea helps the Royal Navy and Great Britain to dominate the oceans. Two aspects that play a role in this are the sailors’ health, particularly protecting them from scurvy, and the logistics required to get the food and beverages to where the men are stationed. Buchet concentrates this examination on the Seven Years War (1756-1763) because this is when naval administration and infrastructure develop.

This scholarly volume is divided into three parts:

I. The General Organisation of Victualling the British Navy

The three chapters in this section elucidate the historical controversy of whether it becomes more cost efficient and effective for the state to run the supply system, or whether the private sector works best; analyze the Victualling Board’s operation during the conflict through the use of documentary evidence; and demonstrate the innovative evolution of food rations and their preservation. Also evaluated are the benefits from preventing scurvy.

II. The Bases

Contained within four chapters, Buchet discusses the naval bases and how the Victualling Board Commissioners oversee their management during times of peace and during outbreaks of hostility. He also explores the consolidation and expansion that the victualling process undergoes during this period. Particular emphasis is placed on the day-to-day operation in Plymouth as well as the yards and contractors overseas, with particular emphasis on those in the West Indies where most warships are found. Insight is also provided on the suppliers and merchant house networks that dominate transatlantic trade.

III. The Main Markets

Within the final three chapters of this book, the compiled data identifies the merchants involved with feeding the navy. The author analyzes this information by studying the primary commodities in which they deal: a) meat, b) cereals and pulses (i.e., peas), and c) beverages, butter, cheese, salt, olive oil, and raisins.

Numerous tables supplement the information contained within the chapters, as do footnotes. Following the author’s conclusions are eight appendices:

Ordinary Charge of the Victualling Board in 1747
Commissioners of the Victualling Board, 1755-63
The Structure of British Naval Administration
Itemised Distribution of Victualling Board Expenses, 1756-9, 1762-3
List of Victuals on the Southsea Castle Leaving for the East Indies at the End of 1759 with a Crew of 130 Men
Process to be Used in Curing Beef and Pork
Wage Totals, According to Activity, Paid to Victualling Personnel in the London Yard in the First Quarter of 1761
Supervisory Staff of the Victualling Board, 1761

A list of sources and a bibliography, as well as an index, are also included.

Originally published in French, Buchet’s definitive examination of the Victualling Board, its development, and its activities provides a thorough, well-researched, and interesting account that focuses on an aspect of Royal Navy history rarely discussed beyond a cursory look. The translation is seamless, easy to read, and, at times, fascinating. Not only does this work study the board and logistics, it also provides readers with information about the merchants who supply the foodstuffs required to feed the navy. In addition, this study proves false numerous statements about victualling that have appeared in earlier studies of the Royal Navy.

Cover Art: Broke of the
Shannon and the War of 1812

Broke of the Shannon and the War of 1812
edited by Tim Voelcker
Seaforth, 2013, ISBN 978-1-84832-179-3, US $38.95 / UK £19.99

On 1 June 1813, two frigates – one British, one American – battled each other several miles off Boston’s shore. After fifteen minutes of fighting, HMS Shannon, commanded by Captain Philip Broke, captured USS Chesapeake. Her captain, James Lawrence, was mortally wounded, and Broke himself sustained serious wounds that ended his active naval career. Two hundred years later, a group of historians wrote the following articles to celebrate the bicentennial of this famous event. Their purpose was to create an anthology that provided historical information without being pedantic and priced beyond the reach of most readers. Nor did they wish to write just an historical account of this naval engagement and the two captains. Their goal was fourfold: a) to provide the necessary background for readers to understand the War of 1812 and its outcomes; b) to learn about Broke personally and professionally; c) to study the battle and its impact on the nations involved; and d) to share what happened to these two ships.

1. The War of 1812: A Perspective from the United States by John B. Hattendorf

He succinctly explains why American leaders went to war from their perspectives, rather than those of 21st-century historians. He also provides an excellent recap of those who support and those who oppose the war. Equally compelling is his explanation of how and why Lawrence becomes “a martyr for the cause.” (12)

2. Sideshow? British Grand Strategy and the War of 1812 by Andrew Lambert

Of note here are how Great Britain views the war, why it takes her so long to take the Americans seriously, and what strategies they implement. This chapter also talks about privateers.

3. Canada and the War of 1812 by Chris Madsen

4. Prize Laws in the War of 1812 by Gabriela A. Frei

This essay expertly explains prize law from the British perspective and what elements are bones of contention between the two countries.

5. Victories or Distractions, Honour or Glory? by Timothy Voelcker

What are particularly compelling in this chapter is Voelcker’s discussion on the difference between honor and glory, and what the two captains actually sought from the battle between their two ships.

6. Broke – His Youth and Education by John Blatchly

7. In Arctic Waters by Michael Barritt

8. Letters to his Wife ‘Loo’ by Ellen Gill

A fascinating essay about Broke, his wife, and his family. Also compelling is the explanation as to why letters play such an important role in the lives of sailors, which is made even more poignant since handwritten letters are a rarity in our current technological age.

9. A Gunnery Zealot: Broke’s Scientific Contribution to Naval Warfare by Martin Bibbings

Although some information is a bit technical, Bibbings does a commendable job in making it easy to understand and showing us the importance of Broke’s innovations. Also interesting is his training regime for the gunners.

10. The Battle by Martin Bibbings

11. Broke’s ‘Miraculous’ Recovery by Peter Schurr

A persuasive explanation of the wounds that Broke sustaind and how they impact him. It’s written so that any lay person can comprehend what happens to him.

12. Representing Nations: Caricature and the Naval War of 1812 by James Davey

13. Halifax and its Naval Yard by Julian Gwyn

14. HMS Shannon’s Later Commissions by Martin Salmon

This chapter includes a little information about Shannon’s participation in the suppression of piracy and anti-slavery operations in the Caribbean.

15. Chesapeake Mill by John Wain

16. Ballads and Broadsides: The Poetic and Musical Legacy of the Shannon and the Chesapeake by Richard Wilson

17. The Peace and its Outcome by Colin Reid

Two sections of color and black-&-white plates accompany the book; there are also maps, a few diagrams, and several other illustrations. Additional references include an historical note and brief family tree, Broke’s rewards, a selected bibliography, and an index. Individual chapters contain relevant footnotes, and there are boxed passages taken from primary documents of the period that have been interspersed between the chapters. Some of these excerpts are from Broke’s letters to his wife, which are fascinating to read. Each essay ends with a short list of suggested readings for those who want to explore the topic in greater depth. One feature I particularly like is the “Notes on Contributors” at the beginning of the book; these credentials provide readers with a sound understanding of why each author is eminently qualified to write on the topic.

Over the past several years I’ve read numerous accounts of the naval War of 1812 and this particular engagement, but this book is the first to explain how to pronounce “Broke” (said as if spelled “brook”). While most scholarly works include conclusions based on the research conducted, this book provides alternative viewpoints in hopes that readers will draw their own conclusions. Together the essays provide a well-rounded overview, rather than looking at the subject in a bubble, and in doing this, the editor has achieved his four-fold goal.

Cover Art: Dictionary
of British Naval Battles

Dictionary of British Naval Battles
by John D. Grainger
Boydell, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84383-704-6, US $165.00 / UK £95.00

This is an alphabetical listing of naval battles involving the British. What encompasses “British” is more problematic because some entries refer to nations that are now independent countries. Some documented battles pertain to events in which the Royal Navy is involved, but may not involve ship-to-ship encounters; one example of this is D-Day. Grainger explains how he decided what to include and what to omit in his introduction to the book. He also discusses the historical records that are available, or not, and how contradictory evidence sometimes limits what he includes. Additionally, the introduction explains the format he uses to denote different types of entries. Lists of references, abbreviations, and a glossary follow.

The entries themselves range in length from a single paragraph of two sentences to several pages. Places may be subdivided by wars or years. For example, the entry for the Adriatic Sea is subdivided into the Napoleonic War and The Great War, and both of these are further delineated by years, such as 1807, 1809, and 1943-1945. The most recent entries involve the Iraq Wars. Also included are encounters pertaining to ships of the East India Company. One of the most extensive listings concerns the English Channel, which goes on for fourteen pages, beginning with King Athelstan in 939 and ending with the final U-boat attacks in 1944 and 1945.

Some entries include battles between a specific vessel and privateers or pirates. Many of these cite confrontations that will be difficult for the researcher to locate without careful study of individual ship’s logs. Quite a few entries involve Chinese or other Asian pirates. The battle between Blackbeard and Maynard is included but is listed under the ships involved: “Pearl and Lyme v. Adventure.” One entry names the wrong pirate. Listed under “Scarborough v. Queen Anne’s Revenge, 1717”, it identifies the pirate as Kidd, who was never associated with the QAR and was hanged sixteen years before this battle. The QAR was Edward Teach’s (Blackbeard) pirate ship. (Equally troubling is the fact that this battle never actually occurs, for no mention of it appears in the Scarborough's logs.)

A set of maps follows the entries, but aren’t always helpful if the reader doesn’t know where a place cited in an entry is located. This problem may have been averted had a map reference been appended to the entry. There is an extensive index at the end of the book, but generic search terms won’t be found. For example, “pirate” doesn’t appear under "P," but if a specific pirate’s name is known, such as Bartholomew Roberts, the reader will find the entry concerning his ships. Some may be found by looking up the place, such as Sallee, Morocco, if the reader knows from where the Barbary pirates hailed.

The steep price of this volume puts it out of reach for many readers. Libraries with a strong naval history collection may find their owned titles already contain more-detailed accounts of the battles, but this book may provide information on lesser-known or hard-to-find confrontations. Collections containing few volumes on the history of the Royal Navy may find this a good introductory resource.

Cover art: How Britain
Won the War of 1812: The
Royal Navy’s Blockades of
the United States,
1812-1815

How Britain Won the War of 1812: The Royal Navy’s Blockades of the United States, 1812-1815
by Brian Arthur
Boydell, 2011, ISBN 978-1-84383-665-0, US $99.00 / CAN $102.93 / UK £60

For most Americans, this title may seem odd since we’re taught to believe we won the War of 1812. The Treaty of Ghent, which ends the war, actually signals a return to the status quo before President Madison declares war. Historians on both sides of the Atlantic have tended to ignore this conflict, but with the beginning of its bicentennial, they turn from the greater conflicts of the period to examine this one. Arthur puts forth the hypothesis that Britain actually wins because of the success of its naval blockade.

The War of 1812 threatens Canada, the economy of British colonies in the West Indies, and the health and welfare of the fledgling United States. Although Arthur includes key military campaigns and the progress of the war from the perspective of those who fight it, his main purpose is to show the devastating effect the Royal Navy’s blockade system – perfected against Napoleonic France – has on the American economy and government. He also highlights how the differences in the two countries’ fiscal systems greatly impacted the war’s outcome, as well as the strengths and weaknesses in implementing blockades and convoys.

Andrew Lambert, Laughton Professor of Naval History in the Department of War Studies at King’s College in London, pens the foreword. Seven chapters cover Convoys and Blockades, War at a Distance, From Business Partners to Enemies, The United States Blockaded, Blockades and Blunders, Trade and War, Capital and Credit. The final chapter presents the author’s conclusions. Supplemental materials include illustrations, tables, two appendices, chapter notes, a bibliography, and an index.

Although occasional reference is made to privateers and the author clearly recognizes and discusses the role of the United States Navy, this is a study of the effectiveness of the Royal Navy. In the introduction, Arthur elucidates the purpose for writing this book:

. . . to investigate the link between the British maritime blockades of the United States, their fiscal, financial, economic and political consequences, and the subsequent preparedness of the American administration to end the war of 1812 on terms significantly favourable to Britain in the long run: a task not before undertaken at such depth.

He skillfully and competently argues this premise, demonstrating that while the grinding down of one side’s economy is a long and drawn-out method of waging war, it can also be quite successful. By incorporating an overview of how economic warfare evolves, the various facets impacting the potential for war and the actual conflict, and the practical problems and solutions for implementing a blockade, he provides a well-rounded examination from a fresh perspective. Readers will find themselves rethinking what they know of this period in American history. The price of this volume is a bit daunting, but this scholarly and objective work provides vital research material to those who study this Anglo-American war.

Cover Art: Midshipmen and
Quarterdeck Boys in the British Navy
1771- 1831

Midshipmen and Quarterdeck Boys in the British Navy, 1771-1831
by S. A. Cavell
Boydell, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84383-719-0, US $99.00 / UK £60.00

Cavell opens her study on young gentlemen in the Royal Navy with a letter from a five-year-old lad enamored with the romance of naval life. What he doesn’t comprehend are the hardships, perils, and demands of such a life. This volume focuses on the “servants, volunteers, midshipmen, masters’ mates, and acting lieutenants” – boys who enter the navy with the intent of one day becoming an officer. (Those surveyed for this study range in age from seven to fifty-eight, although the majority are between thirteen and twenty-two years old.) Cavell’s purpose in examining this generation of young gentlemen is to determine what naval and civil factors influence these recruits and their careers within the navy. The time period is chosen because of “important changes taking place within the navy during the French Wars.” (4)

The book is divided into eight chapters and the content covered is summarized in the final paragraph of each chapter.

Young Gentlemen Defined provides an overview of who’s being studied and the parameters used to provide the sampling for the database. Subheadings in this chapter cover selection and appointment, life aboard ship, the birth of the ‘young gentleman,’ education and training, the appearance of a gentleman, and authority and the officer trainee.

A Social Survey: The Social Backgrounds of Young Gentlemen concerns methodology and definitions and terminology used in this study.

Eighteenth-Century Selection, 1771-1800, begins with an overview of the data before examining different historical periods – before and after the American War (the American Revolution). Other subtopics covered include Prince William Henry at sea, naval perspectives versus public perceptions, agents of change, rates of promotion to commissioned rank 1771-91, the geography of recruitment 1771-91, and The Order of Council of 1794.

Eighteenth-Century Crime and Punishment, 1760-1800: By examining the crimes these junior officers commit, Cavell provides an insightful look “into how young gentlemen interpreted their place in naval society, conceived of their authority, and then used or abused that authority.” (93) From data culled from courts-martial records, she focuses on the nature of crime, aggression toward superiors, naval and civil issues, and the Midshipmen’s Mutiny in 1791.

Nineteenth-Century Selection, 1801-1815: This chapter covers the Napoleonic Wars, social change and its effect on young gentlemen, changing boundaries of authority, the disparity between social authority and naval rank, manners and deportment, education, presentation, professionalism and patronage, and the increase in the Admiralty’s power in matters concerning young gentlemen.

Nineteenth-Century Selection, 1815-1831: While the previous chapter focuses on a war-torn period, the primary focus of this chapter is during a time of peace and the problems that arise as a result of it. Subheadings include the Admiralty’s regulations of 1815, other Admiralty measures, the plight of volunteers, volunteers and the Order of 1830, rates of promotion to commissioned rank 1801-31, public perception in the post-war years, and the geography of recruitment 1801-31.

Nineteenth-Century Crime and Punishment, 1801-1831, explores the crimes of young gentlemen, how they differ from the previous years, and social order and the naval hierarchy.

Beyond Reform: the Future of Naval Command: The final chapter in this study explores the abolition of the Royal Naval College in 1837, as well as the qualifying examinations for young gentlemen.

Dr. Cavell completes her volume on midshipmen and quarterdeck boys with a conclusion on her findings. The key points upon which she elucidates concern the theories of social development, centralization and the Admiralty, effects on professionalism and subordination, and patterns of change.

Aside from the figures, plates, and tables that appear within various chapters, she also includes five appendices:

a. Sampling results: quarterdeck boys and junior officers with traceable social backgrounds
b. Ages and passing times
c. Wages and allocations for 1771, 1797, and 1807
d. Estimates of available positions for captains’ servants/1st-class volunteers, and midshipmen and masters’ mates
e. Sample numbers for final databases

An extensive bibliography and a detailed index follow. Citations and explanatory notes appear in footnotes on the pages where the material is discussed.

Cavell deftly demonstrates how the social status of a person’s birth, whom he knows, and how much wealth he has play vital roles in determining who becomes a young gentleman and whether he eventually realizes his goal of becoming a commissioned officer. She also shows that just because a boy knows influential and powerful people does not mean that the boy merits either his appointment or his elevation within the service. Excerpts from naval documents and journals or correspondence provide primary evidence to back up her claims and to showcase how individual officers interprete the changes occurring within the navy during this time period. Perhaps most fascinating is how the author shows the conflicts that arise when a young gentleman’s social status is higher than his rank or that of his commanding officer, as well as how external changes lead to it becoming more difficult to achieve an officer appointment without sufficient wealth and/or the patronage of someone with influence and power. The steep price may keep this book out of the hands of most readers, but Midshipmen and Quarterdeck Boys in the British Navy is an essential addition to any library that focuses on naval history in general or the history of the British Royal Navy in particular.

The Myth of the Press Gang
Volunteers, Impressments and the Naval Manpower Problem in the Late Eighteenth Century
by J. Ross Dancy
Boydell, ISBN 978-1783270033, 2015, US $120.00

review by Irwin Bryan

This is an incredibly detailed look at the methods and effectiveness of gathering men to serve in the growing Royal Navy from 1793-1815, the years of England’s conflicts with France during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. Readers become aware of the various methods used, the ages and homes of these men, and their levels of skill when they are assigned to their first ship.

The front cover shows a painting on display at the National Maritime Museum entitled “Seaman Leaning on a Gun on the ‘Pallas’.” I find it odd that a book about recruiting thousands of men shows only one man on a ship. At the same time, I expected more color pictures throughout the text. Unfortunately all illustrations are pie charts, bar charts, tables, line graphs, or segmentation graphs. These accompany a very detailed narrative with many footnoted quotations to demonstrate the author’s point. A bibliography and index are also provided.

Dancy explains that the level of detail and accuracy of his study can never have been done without the aid of modern-day computers. As a result, he postulates that over the years even respected historians have created the “Myth of the Press Gang,” which wrongfully asserts that impressment is the main source of recruitment and that Press-Gang operations are by-and-large much worse than actually occur.

The various statistics presented are based on the muster books from ships put into commission each year between 1793 and 1801. Three are selected from each of the naval ports of Chatham, Plymouth, and Portsmouth. Annually at each port, the ships used are a ship-of-the-line with a complement of 491 to over 850 men, a frigate with 145 to 350 men, and a sloop carrying 76 to 125 men. Altogether, information is gathered for 81 ships and 27,174 men, a statistically significant base.

After the introduction, the reader learns the history of how the Royal Navy is formed and manned and how the naval administration grew to keep pace with this growth and increase in responsibilities. Next is a chapter on manning statistics, which describes the different recruitment methods used and various portrayals of the petty officers and lower-deck crews: their ages, skill levels, places of recruitment, and nationalities. (England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales are treated as separate nations.)

Each recruitment method has its own chapter. First covered is Volunteering, which means signing-up at a station set up for that purpose and receiving a monetary bonus as a result. It is necessary to pay skilled sailors this bonus as the Royal Navy is competing with the merchant marine for men already trained at working a ship. The highest bonus is paid to Able Seamen and Ordinary Seamen received more than untrained Landsmen. A detailed analysis of Volunteering includes the same types of information found in the overall manning statistics. Part of the Press-Gang myth is the portrayal of warships as “floating-hells” that are so bad no one will ever volunteer to serve! This reality is far from the truth, especially as compared to a commoner’s lot ashore. The statistics on the number of volunteers shows this is not the general perception at the time.

The chapter on Impressment begins by mentioning the various misconceptions about the Impress Service and how the author’s research and data enable him to refute each one in turn. The historiography and fiction on the Age of Sail typically describe “oversized brutal men wielding clubs and walking the streets under the direction of a sadistic lieutenant looking for any man unfortunate enough to stumble across their path.” (120) Most people think the majority of men are pressed into service, but Dancy’s study seems to prove otherwise. One popular myth, or truth, not covered is the taking of the King’s Shilling. Boys and big, strong men are often tricked into accepting a coin for an errand only to find themselves enlisted in the Navy as a result. The history and growth of the Impress Service, along with its methods of operation are presented. In addition to statistics on the numbers of men each manning method provides, the information on pressed men is broken down by age, geography, skill level, and more.

Last to be discussed, the Quota Acts are explained as a method of naval manning put forth by William Pitt and Parliament in 1795, which assigns each county in England a specific number of men they must recruit for naval service. Again, the history and literature describe this as a way for each magistrate to send the local “bad-eggs” and convicts out of their districts as most of the recruited quotamen. Historians and naval officers have claimed they are men of dubious character and virtually useless aboard ship. These same quotamen are even blamed as the main sources of the naval mutinies of 1797. As with Impressment, the author shows this not to be the actual case once the data is presented. An additional statistic I found interesting is the prior occupations of those who are recruited under the Port of London’s quota (175); it helps answer the stormy weather question asked aboard, “Who’d be a sailor?”

The final chapter, called “Conclusion,” restates the author’s position on the quantity, quality, and methods of the Royal Navy’s recruitment efforts. Central to this is how untrue perceptions of the Impress Service have colored fiction and nonfiction since that time and how these untruths may finally be set aside.

Had this book been entitled “A Study of Royal Naval Manning from 1793-1815” and Dancy not devoted so much attention to disproving “The Myth of the Press Gang,” it would be considered by all to be an excellent collection of information never before presented to naval historians and an important contribution to naval literature. Unfortunately, this is not the case. This book will probably only attract devoted readers of the Royal Navy and the Age of Sail. Like me, they may find fault with the limited “perfect-world” nature of this study, which only looks at empty ships receiving their original complement of men at the main naval ports in England. This ignores replacing men lost to illness, injury, or death throughout the wars. Also ignored are ships operating on foreign stations or seeking replacements or additions to their allotted complement every time they meet a merchant ship or arrive at any port, including these same naval ports.

Another problem is the author’s statements about the navy only needing young and agile men who can be trained to climb into the rigging and set the sails, and how landsmen are unskilled “sailors” who need to be on deck to do the heavy work like raising the yards. Completely ignored is the fact that vessels in the navy are warships and many men are needed just to work each of the cannons -- the ships’ main reason for existence. None of the men manning the guns need any prior experience on sailing ships.

In the end, I am not convinced by Dancy’s reasoning or his conclusions.

Cover Art: Naval Leadership
and Management 1650-1950

Naval Leadership and Management 1650-1950: Essays in Honour of Michael Duffy
edited by Helen Doe and Richard Harding
Boydell, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84383-695-7, US $99.00 / UK £60.00

After forty years of teaching, Michael Duffy retired in 2009. His research in maritime history began at Oxford, and in 1987, he published an influential and authoritative study entitled Soldiers, Sugar and Seapower: The British Expeditions to the West Indies. He founded the Maritime Historical Studies Centre at Exeter, and went on to mentor and guide many doctoral candidates. He also edited the Mariner’s Mirror. He served on the Councils of the Society for Nautical Research and the Navy Records Society. His colleagues and students have participated in this publication to pay tribute to Duffy, who encouraged “the highest standards of historical scholarship” in “people of all ages and levels of experience to contribute to the field of naval history.” (25)

The essays here focus on leadership and management in the British Royal Navy over a 300-year period. They step beyond the heroic to examine the reality.

Leadership: The Place of Hero

1. Admiral Rainier’s Management Challenges, 1794-1805 by Peter Ward
2. Neglect or Treason: Leadership Failure in the Mid-Eighteenth-Century Royal Navy by Richard Harding

Leadership and Organisational Frictions: Contested Territories

3. Who has Command? The Royal Artilleryman aboard Royal Navy Warships in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars by Gareth Cole
4. ‘The Marine Officer is a Raw Lad and therefore Troublesome’: Royal Navy Officers and the Officers of the Marines, 1755-1797 by Britt Zerbe

Management Capability and the Exercise of Naval Power

5. High Exertions and Difficult Cases: The Work of the Transport Agent at Portsmouth and Southampton, 1795-1797 by Roger Morriss
6. Forgotten or Ignored, the Officers at Invergordon: ‘We are doing this for you as well you know’ by Mike Farquharson-Roberts
7. ‘To Excite the Whole Company to Courage and Bravery’: The Incentivisation of British Privateering Crews, 1702-1815 by David J. Starkey

The Evolution of Management Training in the Royal Navy, 1800-1950

8. New Kinds of Discipline: The Royal Navy in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century by Oliver Walton
9. Towards a Hierarchy of Management: The Victorian and Edwardian Navy, 1860-1918 by Mary Jones
10. Leadership Training for Midshipmen, c. 1919-1939 by Elinor Romans

Of particular interest to readers of this column is Starkey’s essay on privateering. He discusses various “theoretical perspectives with empirical evidence to explain the organisational structure deployed by those who promoted privateering ventures.” (124) He first examines privateering as a business, including the objectives and managerial challenges those involved in these ventures face. Next, he focuses on incentives for those who fund the privateers and how they are organized, before progressing to ways in which tensions within those structures are managed or dealt with.

Each editor and contributor is eminently qualified to participate in this volume. In addition to the essays, the book includes tables, a list of editors and contributors, a select bibliography, and an index. Footnotes appear within each essay, which allows readers to see the references and notes as they reach them, rather than having to refer to the back of the book.

Richard Knight’s “Michael Duffy: An Appreciation,” which opens the book, succinctly explains why Duffy plays an important role in maritime research and includes a bibliography of his work. Although just the tip of the iceberg, these essays are readable and provide a wealth of information for anyone interested in leadership and management studies, whether the reader’s focus be the Royal Navy or a different path entirely.

Nelson’s Navy in 100 Objects
by Gareth Glover
Frontline, 2021, ISBN 978-1-52673-132-6, US $49.95 / UK £25.00

review by Irwin Bryan

Frontline, an imprint of Pen & Sword, has commissioned over two dozen coffee-table books of 100 Objects. While I am not familiar with any of the other books, I was certainly interested in this title and curious to see which items would be presented and those that were omitted. The result is a truly wonderful volume of naval history with gorgeous, mostly color, photographs. The author provides short essays regarding each chosen item to explain its significance. Some essays closely follow the objects shown while others are only casually related to the object.

Barrel of salt port
(Source: Pen
& Sword,
used with
permission)

Lloyd's Patriotic
Fund Sword (
Pen &
Sword, used
with
permission)

Left: #68. Barrel of Salt Pork -- the weekly ration was 2 pounds (907 grams) per man
Right: #96. Lloyd's Patriotic Fund £100 Sword awarded for demonstrations of great valor
(Source: Nelson's Navy in 100 Objects, used with permission from publisher)

There is no information about the selection policy of the objects or even who selects them. A former Royal Navy officer, Glover is a historian whose expertise on the Royal Navy and Napoleonic wars makes him a perfect choice to author this book. There is no apparent significance in being numbered object one or 100. After the first few items introduce organizations that control the Royal Navy, such as the Admiralty, Navy Board, and Transport Board, the remaining objects seem to be randomly distributed.

With 100 objects to evaluate, there are a few questionable items presented. I expect everything chosen will have been familiar to Admiral Nelson and pertain to the Royal Navy. Some objects do not meet that criterion. This includes a whaleship, a French explorer’s chronometer, and slave shackles. Then there are three items about HMS Trincomalee, a frigate not launched until 1817, twelve years after Nelson dies. Two of these use the same photograph of the ship – one in color and one in black-&-white. Some essays and pictures are also mismatches. The brig HMS Pickle has three pictures of three-masted vessels instead of two-masted brigs. The essay for the painting of the Battle of Basque Roads in 1809 tells all about fireships. Although fireships are used in the battle, the selected painting does not show any. One object is a captured water cask, but the essay is about fleet actions. “Contemporary View of the Naval Base at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1804” begins with the actual picture and a paragraph about the Halifax Station. The rest of the entry, however, concerns Bermuda and its base.

That said, many objects and their essays include information one may not expect or realize. An early example concerns the Royal Ordnance, which provides weapons to both the Army and Navy. The essay explains how foundry skills and technical expertise make cannons better and safer, but this also means the Navy has no control over the weapons for the fleet.

The Gunpowder Magazine has a very detailed write-up that includes information about how much powder different barrels hold and how much is needed for the various sized guns. Having a photo of the inside of this space provides an intimate view of a generally hidden place.

HMS Victory's
Gunpowder
Magazine &
Filling Room
(Source: Pen
& Sword,
used with
permission)

#18. HMS Victory's Gunpowder Magazine & Filling Room
(Source: Nelson's Navy in 100 Objects, used with permission from publisher)

I expected to see some items that are not included. Although different cannons are shown, none of the implements used in loading and firing them are mentioned. The many ropes aboard ship need pulley blocks, belaying pins, and fife rails to manage these lines and control the sails; these are also not chosen. At least, the inclusion of the Rope Walk at Chatham Dockyard explains how ropes are manufactured.

Most people who are interested in the Royal Navy and Age of Sail will find Nelson’s Navy in 100 Objects a great introduction to many aspects of this time. There are objects from shipbuilding and the Royal Dockyards to feeding the crews and the provisions taken aboard each ship, as well as various armaments and weapons for boarding actions or repelling boarders. Whether someone comes across this book out on display or chooses to purchase it, they will enjoy the many photos and learning much about Nelson’s sailing navy.

The Real Jim Hawkins: Ships’ Boys in the Georgian Navy
by Roland Pietsch
Seaforth, 2010, ISBN 978-1-84832-036-9, UK £25.00

Using Robert Louis Stevenson’s Jim Hawkins as a typical boy of the 18th century, Pietsch discusses the actual lads who go to sea with the Royal Navy. These boys are the servants and powder monkeys who later become seasoned sailors, and the author incorporates archival resources, such as records from the Marine Society, to illustrate his points. This book isn’t merely an examination of their lives at sea but also their lives before – social backgrounds, previous jobs and apprenticeships, and the youth culture of the period. He also focuses on the social and emotional challenges Jim Hawkins faces once he retires from the sea. Rather than a history of the privileged boys who eventually become midshipmen and officers, this is the story of those who live on the lower decks.

The book is divided into eight chapters:

Seafaring Boys in the Eighteenth Century: Fiction and Reality
Jim’s Troublesome Youth on Land: ‘The Idle Apprentice Sent to Sea’
Poor Jim: Charity and the Marine Society
The Typical Jim Hawkins
Jim’s Motives: Sailors and Youth Culture
Jim’s Life on Board
Jim’s Coming of Age at Sea: Masculinity and the Horrors of War
Jim’s Return from the Sea

An epilogue follows, as do source and literature notes, text notes, a bibliography, and an index. Black-&-white illustrations can be viewed throughout the narrative.

While many books have been written about the Royal Navy during the Age of Sail, this is the first to focus on the young lads who go to sea, especially during times of war. The inclusion of quotes from actual ships’ boys – Edward Coxe, Mary Lacy, Olaudah Equiano, and Sam Leech are but a few – enrich the narrative and bring an element of realism to what life is like for them. The Marine Society’s records provide a solid sampling of information since they supply more than 26,000 boys to the navy between 1756 and 1815, and the incorporation of this data shows the depth of the research Pietsch goes to in writing this book. (He narrows that number down to 262 boys found in the naval archives.) The Real Jim Hawkins is a readable and intriguing account about one segment of the Royal Navy overlooked in history.

Cover Art: The
Transformation of
British Naval Strategy

The Transformation of British Naval Strategy: Seapower and Supply in Northern Europe, 1808-1812
by James Davey
Boydell, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84383-748-0, US $99.00 / UK £60.00

With Britain’s triumph at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), Napoleon turns to economic warfare to defeat his enemy. Rather than face financial ruin, the British government counters with its own policies to counter such warfare, and the Royal Navy plays an instrumental part in that strategy. Davey explores one aspect of this through his study of the navy’s role in the Baltic Seas, a crucial trading center for the English, as Britain attempts to thwart Napoleon’s ingress into a region surrounded by Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, and Russia. While other studies have concerned themselves with how the Admiralty victualled their ships, this one examines how the navy disseminates those food supplies, as well as the challenges the region presents in doing so, and analyzes how that success or failure impacts operations and strategy.

Table of Contents

1. The Forgotten Theatre: Britain, Northern Europe and the Baltic Sea
2. ‘To keep a fleet above a fortnight’: The Evolution of Naval Logistics during the Eighteenth Century
3. The Challenges of the Baltic Sea
4. The Administration of Power Projection
5. The First Year in the Baltic, 1808
6. The Escalation of Seapower, 1809
7. The Navy, Reform and the British State
8. Logistics and Seapower, 1810-1812

A variety of figures, tables, and maps accompany the text, providing graphical clarification to points the author brings out in this scholarly narrative. The appendices that follow the narrative cover Time Taken to Secure Transport Tonnage to the Baltic (1808-12), Time Taken to Secure Tonnage to the Mediterranean (1800-2), Time Taken to Load Victualling Shipments (1808-10), Time Taken to Deliver Provisions to Various Areas of the Baltic (1808-9), and Efficiency of Victualling Deliveries: Bread and Spirits. A bibliography and index are also included.

While the title may make the reader think of this book as pedantic and uninteresting, the opposite is true. It’s a engaging examination of economics during war, in an area of study overlooked in volumes concerning the Napoleonic Wars, and in a region that takes second stage to others in this hostile period. Even though Davey’s primary focus is on British seapower and supply in the Baltic, his presentation encompasses far more than just this region and this navy. It presents a microcosmic study of British strategy and naval policy overall as the nation strives to defeat Napoleon. His inclusion of details about other nations and their navies provides readers with a better understanding of how the war progresses and why Napoleon eventually fails to achieve his goals. While emphasis is placed on the navy, there are references to privateering, since they pose a danger to merchant shipping in the Baltic.